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Wu wei (; Jyutping: mou4-wai4) is an ancient Chinese concept that literally means " actionlessness" or " motionlessness". The term is widely known as a Taoist concept denoting the nature of Tao, meaning that while Tao is the source of all existence and manifesting all phenomena, its intrinsic nature remains formless, motionless, changeless, timeless, and uncreated. - Chapter 37: "The Dao abides in non-action but there is nothing it does not do." 道常無為而無不為。Some other translations of 道常無為而無不為 in Chapter 37 of Tao Teh Ching:
(Chan): "Tao invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left undone."
(Lau): "The Way never acts yet nothing is left undone."The nature of Tao as described in Chapter 25 of Tao Teh Ching :
There was something undifferentiated and yet complete.
Which existed before heaven and earth.
Soundless and formless.
It depends on nothing and does not change.
It operates everywhere and is free from danger.
It may be considered the Mother of the universe.
I do not know its name; I call it Tao.Another translation of : "There was something undefined and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things. I do not know its name, and I give it the designation of the Tao (the Way or Course)."The nature of Tao as described in : "We look at it, and we do not see it, and we name it 'the Equable.' We listen to it, and we do not hear it, and we name it 'the Inaudible.' We try to grasp it, and do not get hold of it, and we name it 'the Subtle.' With these three qualities, it cannot be made the subject of description; and hence we blend them together and obtain The One."
The term is interpreted and translated in various ways as "actionlessness", "non-action", "inaction," "without action" or "effortless action", etc. Some interpret it as a harmonious state of free flowing and unforced activity. In a political context, it also refers to an ideal form or principle of governance.
Wu wei appears as an idea as early as the Spring and Autumn period, with early literary examples in the Classic of Poetry. It became an important concept in the Confucian Analects, linking a Confucian ethic of practical morality to a state of being which harmonizes intention and action. (2025). 9780872207813, Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 9780872207813 It would go on to become a central concept in Chinese Legalism statecraft and Daoism, in Daoism as a concept emphasizing alignment with the natural Tao in actions and intentions, avoiding force or haste against the natural order.
Sinologist Jean François Billeter describes wu-wei as a "state of perfect knowledge (understanding) of the coexistence of the situation and perceiver, perfect efficaciousness and the realization of a perfect economy of energy".
The contemplative Daoism of the Zhuangzi portrays wu wei as a source of serenity, rather than something to help people gain political power. Creel takes the Zhuangzi's idea of wu wei as rooted in its transcendental idea of the Dao, which views life and death as an "indissoluble unity." As such, the ideal of the Zhuangzi is the sage who avoids worldly affairs. Whether seeking gain or fame, the Zhuangzi regards "small" and "superior" men largely the same, inasmuch as they abandon the "normal feelings of men" and "proper human course" in favor of "strange and unnatural endeavors".
Traditionally said to have been influenced by Laozi, Creel instead suggested that Daoists might have adopted the second idea of wu wei from Shen Buhai (400 BCE – ) as they became interested in rulers' use of power. While it would be difficult to say in fact whether either Shen Buhai or the Tao te Ching influenced each other, Shen Buhai and the Han Feizi are more evidently a major influence for the Huainanzi's idea of wu wei in the Han dynasty, in the sense of delegating responsibilities to subordinates.
Called "rule by non-activity" and strongly advocated by the Han Feizi, during the Han dynasty until the reign of Han Wudi, rulers confined their activity "chiefly to the appointment and dismissal of his high officials". This "conception of the ruler's role as a supreme arbiter, who keeps the essential power firmly in his grasp" while leaving details to ministers, has a "deep influence on the theory and practice of Chinese monarchy", playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity", ensuring the ruler's power and the stability of the polity.
Although the Inner Zhuangzi may precede them, much of the Outer Zhuangzi derives more from at least the later part of the Warring States period, ridiculing Confucian moralization. Still only appearing three times in the second half of the Zhuangzi, Creel supposed that early Daoists may have avoided the term for its association with Legalism before ultimately co-opting its governmental sense as well, regarding this as attempted in the Outer Zhuangzis chapter 13, . In the more "purposive" Daoism of the Daodejing, likely written after the early Zhuangzi, wu wei becomes a major "guiding principle for social and political pursuit", in which the Daoist "seeks to use his power to control and govern the world".
Apart from Shen Buhai, the Analects of Confucius (Lun-yu) are the only preserved text prior to the Zhuangzi that directly use the term. More modernly, Edward Slingerland believes the idea of wu wei predated the term, dating it back to the era of the Classic of Poetry. With older sinologists more focused on terms, Creel believed that an important clue to the idea of wu wei existed in the Analects.
A saying attributed to Confucius reads: "The Master said, 'Was it not Emperor Shun who did nothing and yet ruled well? What did he do? He merely corrected his person ("made himself reverent" – Slingerland) and took his proper position (facing south) as ruler'". The concept of a divine king whose "magic power" (virtue) "regulates everything in the land" (Creel) pervades early Chinese philosophy, particularly "in the early branches of Quietism that developed in the fourth century B.C."
Unable to find his philosopher-king, Confucius placed his hope in virtuous ministers. Apart from the Confucian ruler's "divine essence" ( ling) "ensuring the fecundity of his people" and fertility of the soil, Creel notes that he was also assisted by "five servants", who "performed the active functions of government".; Xun Kuang's Xunzi, a Confucian adaptation to Qin Legalism, defines the ruler in much the same sense, saying that the ruler "need only correct his person" because the "abilities of the ruler appear in his appointment of men to office": namely, appraising virtue and causing others to perform.
The "object" of wu wei "skill-knowledge" is the Way, which is – to an extent regardless of school – "embodying" the mind to a "normative order existing independently of the minds of the practitioners". The primary example of Confucianism – Confucius at age 7 – displays "mastery of morality" spontaneously, his inclinations being in harmony with his virtue. Confucius considers training unnecessary if one is born loving the Way, as with the disciple Yan Hui. Mencius believed that men are already good, and need only realize it not by trying, but by allowing virtue to realize itself, and coming to love the Way. Training is done to learn to spontaneously love the Way. Virtue is compared with the grain seed (being domesticated) and the flow of water. On the other hand, Xun Kuang considered it possible to attain wu wei only through a long and intensive traditional training.
Though, by still needing to make a cognitive effort, perhaps not resolving the paradox of not doing, the concentration on accomplishing wu wei through the physiological would influence later thinkers. The Daodejing became influential in intellectual circles around 250 BCE. Included in the 2nd century Guanzi, the likely older Neiye (or Inward Training) may be the oldest recovered Chinese text, describing what would become Daoist breath meditation techniques and qi circulation, with Harold D. Roth considering it to be a genuine 4th-century BCE text.
Verse 13 describes the aspects of , attained through relaxed efforts.
A commentary to the Shiji cites a now-lost book as quoting Shen Buhai saying: "By employing (yin), 'passive mindfulness', in overseeing and keeping account of his vassals, accountability is deeply engraved." The Guanzi similarly says: "Yin is the way of non-action. Yin is neither to add to nor to detract from anything. To give something a name strictly on the basis of its form – this is the Method of yin." Yin also aimed at concealing the ruler's intentions, likes and opinions.
Wuwei appears in teachings of the East Mountain school. For example, in the Xiuxin yao lun, Daman Hongren explains that the ignorant mind's learning is useless compared to the learning of the mind which is inactive or unconditioned ( wuwei). This is called "true learning" in which there is ultimately nothing that is learned.McRae, John. The Northern School and the Formation of Early Ch’an Buddhism, pages 125-126. University of Hawaii Press, 1986
Henrik Sorensen observes that wuwei and other concepts commonly associated with Taoism appear in the two Oxhead school texts, the Jueguan lun (Treatise on Cutting Off Contemplation) and the Xin Ming (Mind Inscription). For example, the Xin Ming says: According to Robert Sharf, the Jueguan lun (Treatise on Cutting Off Contemplation) and the Xin Ming (Mind Inscription) can be grouped together with a number of other early Chan texts probably composed sometime during the eighth or ninth century which exhibit a similarity of lexical terms and doctrinal content. This group of texts includes such works as the Xinwang Ming (Mind King Inscription) and the well known Xinxin Ming (Faith-Mind Inscription), as well as the Dunhuang manuscript, the Wuxin lun (Treatise on No-Mind). Wuwei occurs in these texts as well, as the Xinwang Ming says, "The Dharma-jewel of unbiased activity 無為, / Is neither shallow nor profound," (for the Chinese see page 239, note 340) and in the Xinxin Ming one finds: "The wise are without interfering activity 無為, / Foolish men entangle themselves." (for the Chinese see page 240, note 351) The Wuxin lun says, "Engaged in actions day in and day out, I do without doing—which is nothing other than no-mind," and "No perception, no activity: that’s wuwei." According to Urs App, the use of wuwei here resembles that of chapter 3 of the Daodejing, which says, "The acts without acting; thus everything is taken care of."
Wuwei also occurs several times in another text associated with the Oxhead School known as the Baozang lun (Treasure Store Treatise), where it appears alongside the East Asian philosophical concept of ganying, or "sympathetic resonance." In a Buddhist context, this relates to the idea of ying-shen, the resonant or response body of a Buddha. It is that by which the Buddhist sage is able to respond to external stimuli and the needs of suffering beings spontaneously and "without any premeditation or will of his own." According to Sharf, this combines the early Chinese ideal of the sage-king with Indian Buddhist notions of Bodhi as free of karmic activity. The Baozang lun says: "Some call it holy, some call it brilliant; there are many ways to refer to it, as each employs its own name. But in reality its essential principle is nonaction, and its appearance is the absence of attributes." Sharf observes that the Baozang lun contains influences from Chongxuan School ( ch’ung-hsüan).
Wuwei appears in verses attributed to the Liang dynasty figure Baozhi. For example: "The uncontrived 無為, Great Way is natural and spontaneous; you don't need to use your mind to figure it out."The Zen Reader, edited by Thomas Cleary, page 9, Shambhala Publications, 2012 It also appears in the famous Zhengdao ge (Song of Attaining the Way), attributed to Huineng disciple Yongjia Xuanjue: "The leisurely person of the Way who has ceased all learning and has nothing more to do ( wuwei/muwi 無為), / neither removes deluded thoughts nor seeks truth."Seon Master Subul. A Bird in Flight Leaves No Trace: The Zen Teachings of Huangbo with a Modern Commentary, translated by Robert E. Buswell Jr. and Seong-Uk Kim, page 95. Wisdom Publications, 2019. According to Jinhua Jia, although the above have been attributed to Baozhi of the Liang and Yongjia Xuanjue respectively, these are likely products of the Hongzhou school of Chan, which flourished during the Tang dynasty.
Hongzhou sources also caution against grasping onto non-doing itself as some object of attachment. For example, as Baizhang Huaihai points out: "The principle is the principle of nonseeking; seek it and you lose it. If you cling to nonseeking, this is still the same as seeking; if you cling to nondoing, this is the same again as doing."Sayings and Doings of Pai-chang, translated by Thomas Cleary, page 80, Center Publications, 1978 In a similar vein, the Hongzhou master Dazhu Huihai explains that a prediction of Buddhahood will be obtained neither by relying on deeds nor even by refraining from methods. Instead, he says, "You must just avoid letting your minds dwell upon anything whatsoever, which implies (being unconcerned about) either deeds or no deeds—that is what we call 'receiving a prediction of Buddhahood'."Ch'an Master Hui Hai, The Zen Teaching of Instantaneous Awakening, translated by John Blofeld, pages 103-104, Buddhist Publishing Group, 2007
One can also find in Chan sources the similar term, wú shì (無事), often translated as "nothing-to-do," but which also has the meaning of no affairs, no concerns, no matters, and no business. For instance, Huangbo Xiyun states, "the person of the Way is the one who has nothing to do [ wú shì], who has no mind at all and no doctrine to preach. Having nothing to do, such a person lives at ease." Likewise, Huangbo's student Linji Yixuan says, "Followers of the Way, as to buddhadharma, no effort is necessary. You have only to be ordinary, with nothing to do—defecating, urinating, wearing clothes, eating food, and lying down when tired." Linji also connects non-doing with "turning one's light around" (). That is, according to Linji, when one stops seeking externally and turns one's own light in upon oneself, one will on that very instant have nothing to do.
During the Tokugawa period in Japan, Hakuin Ekaku criticized the Zen style of the unconventional master Bankei Yōtaku as "Do-nothing Unborn Zen."Waddell, Norman. Wild Ivy: The Spiritual Autobiography of Zen Master Hakuin, pages 5, & 111-112 (note 16). Shambhala Publications, 1999. According to Bankei's teaching, as one's unborn Buddha-mind is marvelously illuminating ( reimei 霊明) and "smoothly manages each and every thing," there is no need to rely on one's own cleverness or shrewdness.Haskel, Peter (1984). Bankei Zen. Translations from The Record of Bankei, p. 85. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. As it is sufficient to simply realize this clearly, Bankei held that it was unnecessary to engage in practices such as sitting in zazen or investigating Koan.Waddell, Norman. The Unborn: The Life and Teachings of Zen Master Bankei, 1622-1693, p. 116. North Point Press, Jan 21, 2020. For Bankei, one has only to leave everything to the unborn Buddha Mind and function with it in all one's affairs.Haskel, Peter (1984). Bankei Zen. Translations from The Record of Bankei, pages 66-67. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. Bankei wrote:
In recent times, the Korean Korean Seon master Daehaeng (1927–2012) taught "doing without doing" ( ham i ŏpsi handa).Chong Go (2010). Sŏn Master Daehaeng's ‘Doing without Doing’, in Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism, Park, Jin Young, (ed), page 228, SUNY Press According to her view, the fundamental reality, or natural state, is a nondual whole in which everything functions together as one. As such, no separate doer exists, since everything is "happening naturally, without a conscious effort on the part of the individual."Chong Go (2010). Sŏn Master Daehaeng's ‘Doing without Doing’, in Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism, edited by Jin Young Park, page 229, SUNY Press. In terms of a method of spiritual cultivation, "doing without doing" entails letting go of the thought of the individual as a separate doer. For Daehaeng, this requires faith in one's foundation, or fundamental mind, which is connected to all phenomena and functions together with them in a nondual way. As one knows that this foundation is doing all things, one entrusts everything to it with the faith that it is taking care of whatever arises in one's life. Thus, one is able to let go naturally and automatically.Chong Go (2010). Sŏn Master Daehaeng's ‘Doing without Doing’, in Makers of Modern Korean Buddhism, edited by Jin Young Park, pages 235-237, SUNY Press. Daehaeng said:
Shen is credited with the dictum "The Sage ruler relies on method and does not rely on wisdom; he relies on technique, not on persuasions", and used the term wu wei to mean that the ruler, though vigilant, should not interfere with the duties of his ministers, saying "One who has the right way of government does not perform the functions of the five (aka various) officials, and yet is the master of the government".
Since the bulk of both the Daodejing and Zhuangzi appear to have been composed at a later point, Creel argued that it may therefore be assumed that Shen influenced them, much of both appearing to be counter-arguments against Legalist controls. The "Way of Heaven" chapter of the Zhuangzi seems to follow Shen Buhai down to the detail, saying "Superiors must be without action in-order to control the world; inferiors must be active in-order to be employed in the world's business..." and to paraphrase, that foundation and principle are the responsibility of the superior, superstructure and details that of the minister, but then goes on to attack Shen's administrative details as non-essential.
Elsewhere, the Zhuangzi references another Legalist, Shen Dao, as impartial and lacking selfishness, his "great way embracing all things".Antonio S. Cua 2003 p.362, Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy
Emphasizing the use of administrative methods ( Fa) in secrecy, Shen Buhai portrays the ruler as putting up a front to hide his weaknesses and dependence on his advisers.Karyn Lai 2017. p.171. An Introduction to Chinese Philosophy. Shen therefore advises the ruler to keep his own counsel, hide his motivations, and conceal his tracks in inaction, availing himself of an appearance of stupidity and insufficiency. Shen says:
Acting through Fa, the ruler conceals his intentions, likes and dislikes, skills and opinions. Not acting himself, he can avoid being manipulated. The ruler plays no active role in governmental functions. He should not use his talent even if he has it. Not using his own skills, he is better able to secure the services of capable functionaries. Creel argues that not getting involved in details allowed Shen's ruler to "truly rule", because it leaves him free to supervise the government without interfering, maintaining his perspective. Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.
This wu wei might be said to end up the political theory of the "Legalists", if not becoming their general term for political strategy, playing a "crucial role in the promotion of the autocratic tradition of the Chinese polity". The (qualified) non-action of the ruler ensures his power and the stability of the polity.
Right and wrong whirl around him like spokes on a wheel, but the sovereign does not complot. Emptiness, stillness, non-action—these are the characteristics of the Way. By checking and comparing how it accords with reality, [one ascertains] the "performance" of an enterprise.
Han Fei
Detail of The Spinning Wheel, by Chinese artist Wang Juzheng, Northern Song dynasty (960–1279)]]
Shen Buhai insisted that the ruler must be fully informed of the state of his realm, but couldn't afford to get caught up in details and in an ideal situation need listen to no one. Listening to his courtiers might interfere with promotions, and he does not, as Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel says, have the time to do so. The way to see and hear independently is the grouping together of particulars into categories using mechanical or operational method (Fa). On the contrary the ruler's eyes and ears will make him "deaf and blind" (unable to obtain accurate information). Seeing and hearing independently, the ruler is able to make decisions independently, and is, Shen says, able to rule the world thereby.
Despite this, Shen's method of appointment, Ming-shih, advises a particular method for listening to petitioners in the final analyses, which would be articulated as Xing-Ming by Han Fei. In the Han dynasty secretaries of government who had charge of the records of decisions in criminal matters were called Xing-Ming, which Sima Qian (145 or 135 – 86 BC) and Liu Xiang (77–6 BC) attributed to the doctrine of Shen Buhai (400 – ). Liu Xiang goes as far as to define Shen Buhai's doctrine as Xing-Ming. Rather than having to look for "good" men, ming-shih or xing-ming can seek the right man for a particular post by comparing his reputation with real conduct (xing "form" or shih "reality"), though doing so implies a total organizational knowledge of the regime.
More simply though, one can allow ministers to "name" themselves through accounts of specific cost and time frame, leaving their definition to competing ministers. Claims or utterances "bind the speaker to the realization a job" (Makeham). This was the doctrine, with subtle differences, favoured by Han Fei. Favoring exactness, it combats the tendency to promise too much.; Mark Edward Lewis, 1999 p. 33, Writing and Authority in Early China; The correct articulation of is considered crucial to the realization of projects.
Shen resolved hair-splitting litigation through wu wei, or not getting involved, making an official's words his own responsibility. Shen Buhai says, "The ruler controls the policy, the ministers manage affairs. To speak ten times and ten times be right, to act a hundred times and a hundred times succeed – this is the business of one who serves another as minister; it is not the way to rule." The correlation between wu wei and ming-shih likely informed the Taoist conception of the formless Tao that "gives rise to the ten thousand things."Julia Ching, R. W. L. Guisso. 1991. pp. 75,119. Sages and Filial Sons.
If the Han Fei's use of wu wei was derivative of proto-Daoist Animism, its Dao nonetheless emphasizes autocracy ("Tao does not identify with anything but it non-self, the ruler does not identify with the ministers"). Accepting that Han Fei applies wu wei specifically to statecraft, professors Xing Lu argues that Han Fei still considered wu wei is still a virtue. As Han Fei says, "by virtue (De) of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to force or unfold itself."
The Han Feizis commentary on the Daodejing asserts that perspectiveless knowledge – an absolute point of view – is possible.Chad Hansen, 1992 p. 371 A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought
Shen Dao eschews appointment by interview in favour of a mechanical distribution apportioning every person according to their achievement. Linking administrative methods or standards to the notion of impartial objectivity associated with universal interest, and reframing the language of the old ritual order to fit a universal, imperial and highly bureaucratized state, Shen cautions the ruler against relying on his own personal judgment, contrasting personal opinions with the merit of the objective standard as preventing personal judgements or opinions from being exercised. Personal opinions destroy standards, and Shen Dao's ruler therefore "does not show favoritism toward a single person".
The Huang–Lao text Huangdi Sijing says:
Leo Tolstoy was deeply influenced by Daoist philosophy, and wrote his own interpretation of wu wei in his piece Non-Activity.
Psychoanalyst Robin S. Brown has examined wu wei in the context of Western psychotherapy.Brown, R.S. (2020). Groundwork for a Transpersonal Psychoanalysis: Spirituality, Relationship, and Participation. Abingdon, UK; New York: Routledge. Brown links wu wei with the psychoanalytic notion of enactment.
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